Luke concludes Acts by narrating Paul’s preservation on Malta, His arrival in Rome, His witness to Jewish leaders, and His unhindered proclamation of the kingdom of God and the Lord Jesus Christ.
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Acts 28
Paul in Rome: The Kingdom Proclaimed Without Hindrance
Acts 28 shows that the word of God cannot be chained: Paul reaches Rome, proclaims the kingdom, teaches the Lord Jesus Christ, and the gospel continues unhindered despite imprisonment, unbelief, and opposition.
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Chapter Summary
Acts 28 shows that the word of God cannot be chained: Paul reaches Rome, proclaims the kingdom, teaches the Lord Jesus Christ, and the gospel continues unhindered despite imprisonment, unbelief, and opposition.
Overview
Acts 28 argues that God fulfills His promise to bring Paul to Rome and that the gospel remains unhindered even when its messenger is under guard. Paul is preserved from shipwreck, snakebite, sickness, and legal obstruction. In Rome He proclaims the kingdom and Jesus from the Scriptures. Some believe and others reject, but God’s salvation goes to the Gentiles, and the book closes with bold, unhindered proclamation.
Context
Theophilus and the wider church are being shown that the risen Lord kept His promise: Paul reached Rome and continued bearing witness, even while under guard.
Acts 28 begins on Malta after the shipwreck. Paul and the survivors are welcomed by the islanders. After three months, Paul sails from Malta to Syracuse, Rhegium, Puteoli, and finally Rome. The chapter closes with Paul living under house arrest in Rome for two years.
Acts 28 shows that the word of God cannot be chained: Paul reaches Rome, proclaims the kingdom, teaches the Lord Jesus Christ, and the gospel continues unhindered despite imprisonment, unbelief, and opposition.
Luke concludes Acts by narrating Paul’s preservation on Malta, His arrival in Rome, His witness to Jewish leaders, and His unhindered proclamation of the kingdom of God and the Lord Jesus Christ.
Theophilus and the wider church are being shown that the risen Lord kept His promise: Paul reached Rome and continued bearing witness, even while under guard.
Acts 28 begins on Malta after the shipwreck. Paul and the survivors are welcomed by the islanders. After three months, Paul sails from Malta to Syracuse, Rhegium, Puteoli, and finally Rome. The chapter closes with Paul living under house arrest in Rome for two years.
Social Pressure
- Paul remains a prisoner, yet He receives unusual kindness, survives a viper bite, heals the sick, receives honor and provisions, and continues His mission. In Rome He faces mixed reception from Jewish hearers, some persuaded and others unbelieving.
Malta becomes the temporary refuge after shipwreck. Hospitality plays a major role, both from the islanders and later from believers who meet Paul on the way to Rome. Roman custody allows Paul to live by Himself with a soldier guarding Him, creating a limited but real platform for teaching and receiving visitors.
Acts 28 completes the movement from Jerusalem to Rome. The gospel has gone from Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and toward the ends of the earth. The book ends not with Paul’s release or death but with the word of God advancing: the kingdom is proclaimed and Jesus is taught with all boldness and without hindrance.
Chapter Movement
Paul survives Malta, heals many, arrives in Rome, explains His case to Jewish leaders, expounds the kingdom from the Scriptures, warns through Isaiah about unbelief, announces Gentile reception of God’s salvation, and continues proclaiming Christ unhindered.
Discourse Insight
Theological exposition and fulfillment
Acts 28 clarifies the gospel as the proclamation of the kingdom of God and the teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ from the Scriptures. Jesus fulfills the hope of Israel, divides hearers by belief and unbelief, and sends God’s salvation to the Gentiles. The gospel remains unhindered even while its messenger is chained.
Structural Flow
Paul and the shipwreck survivors are welcomed, and Paul survives a viper bite without harm.
Paul heals Publius’s father and many other sick islanders, and the islanders honor and provide for them.
Paul completes the journey to Rome, encouraged by believers who come to meet Him.
Paul tells the Jewish leaders that He is chained because of the hope of Israel.
Paul expounds the kingdom and Jesus from Moses and the Prophets, persuading some while others disbelieve.
Paul applies Isaiah’s word about hardened hearing and announces that God’s salvation has been sent to the Gentiles.
Acts ends with Paul proclaiming the kingdom and teaching the Lord Jesus Christ boldly and without hindrance.
Chapter Outline
- 1: After the shipwreck, everyone safely reaches land and learns the island is Malta.
- 2: Because of rain and cold, the islanders welcome the survivors and build a fire.
- 3: As Paul gathers brushwood, a viper fastens onto His hand.
- 4-6: The islanders first assume Paul is under judgment, then wrongly suppose He is divine when He does not die.
- 7: Publius, the chief official of the island, welcomes Paul and His companions hospitably for three days.
- 8: Paul prays, lays hands on Publius’s sick father, and heals Him.
- 9-10: The rest of the sick on Malta come and are healed, and the islanders honor and supply Paul’s group.
- 11-13: After three months, Paul’s group sails in another Alexandrian ship and continues toward Italy.
- 14: Paul and His companions stay seven days with believers in Puteoli.
- 15: Believers from Rome come to meet Paul, causing Him to thank God and take courage.
- 16: Paul is allowed to live by Himself in Rome with a soldier guarding Him.
- 17: Three days after arriving, Paul calls the local Jewish leaders together.
- 17-20: Paul says He did nothing against His people or customs, was found not guilty of death-worthy crime, and appealed to Caesar because of Jewish opposition.
- 20: Paul says He is bound with a chain because of the hope of Israel.
- 21-22: The Jewish leaders say they have received no negative reports but want to hear Paul’s views about the disputed sect.
- 23: From morning until evening, Paul explains the kingdom and persuades them about Jesus from Moses and the Prophets.
- 24: Some are persuaded, while others refuse to believe.
- 25-27: Paul quotes Isaiah to explain the pattern of hearing without understanding and seeing without perceiving.
- 28: Paul declares that God’s salvation has been sent to the Gentiles and that they will listen.
- 30: Paul spends two years in rented lodging, welcoming all who come.
- 31: Paul proclaims the kingdom of God and teaches about the Lord Jesus Christ with boldness and without hindrance.
Theological Argument
Acts 28 argues that God fulfills His promise to bring Paul to Rome and that the gospel remains unhindered even when its messenger is under guard. Paul is preserved from shipwreck, snakebite, sickness, and legal obstruction. In Rome He proclaims the kingdom and Jesus from the Scriptures. Some believe and others reject, but God’s salvation goes to the Gentiles, and the book closes with bold, unhindered proclamation.
- 1.The safe arrival on Malta confirms the promise of Acts 27 that every life would be preserved.
- 2.The islanders’ kindness displays God’s provision through unexpected Gentile hospitality.
- 3.The viper bite creates another apparent threat to Paul’s life, but he suffers no harm.
- 4.The islanders’ shifting judgment shows the instability of pagan interpretation apart from revelation.
- 5.Paul’s healing ministry on Malta displays God’s mercy and confirms that the prisoner is also God’s servant.
- 6.The survivors are honored and supplied, continuing the theme of providential provision.
- 7.After winter, the voyage resumes, showing that delay does not cancel the promised destination.
- 8.The believers who meet Paul on the way to Rome become instruments of encouragement.
- 9.Paul thanks God and takes courage, showing that even strong servants need fellowship.
- 10.Paul reaches Rome under guard, fulfilling the Lord’s promise that he must testify there.
- 11.Paul first addresses Jewish leaders, continuing the pattern of witness to Israel first.
- 12.He insists that he has done nothing against his people or ancestral customs.
- 13.He explains that his chain is because of the hope of Israel, not criminal guilt.
- 14.The Roman Jewish leaders agree to hear him because the Christian movement is widely disputed.
- 15.Paul expounds the kingdom of God and persuades concerning Jesus from Moses and the Prophets.
- 16.The divided response in Rome mirrors the repeated pattern throughout Acts: some believe, others reject.
- 17.Paul applies Isaiah’s hardening text to explain unbelief as a longstanding covenantal pattern.
- 18.The announcement that Gentiles will listen does not erase Jewish priority but exposes unbelief and affirms the worldwide mission.
- 19.The final picture of Paul welcoming all who come shows gospel hospitality under imprisonment.
- 20.The ending emphasizes the triumph of the message, not the freedom of the messenger.
- 21.The kingdom of God and the Lord Jesus Christ are proclaimed boldly and without hindrance.
Theological Focus
- God’s fulfilled promise
- Providential preservation
- Unexpected Gentile kindness
- Healing and mercy
- Paul’s arrival in Rome
- Encouragement through believers
- The hope of Israel
- Kingdom of God proclamation
- Jesus explained from Moses and the Prophets
- Divided response to the gospel
- Isaiah’s warning of hardened hearts
- Gentile reception of salvation
- Boldness under house arrest
- The word unhindered
- Mission continuing beyond Acts
- Providence
- Healing Mercy
- Hope of Israel
- Kingdom of God
- Jesus from Moses and the Prophets
- Hardened Unbelief
- Salvation Sent to the Gentiles
- Bold Proclamation
- Unhindered Word
Covenant Significance
Acts 28 closes by identifying Paul’s message with the hope of Israel and the kingdom of God, explained from Moses and the Prophets. Jewish unbelief is interpreted through Isaiah’s prophetic warning, while Gentile reception fulfills the outward movement of salvation. The covenant promises are not abandoned; they are fulfilled in Jesus and proclaimed to all nations.
Old Testament Connections
- Paul says He has done nothing against His people or ancestral customs.
- Paul identifies His chains with the hope of Israel.
- Paul expounds the kingdom of God from morning to evening.
- Paul persuades concerning Jesus from the Law of Moses and the Prophets.
- Some Jewish hearers are persuaded, showing that Israel’s hope is truly fulfilled in Jesus.
- Others reject, fulfilling Isaiah’s warning about hardened hearing and seeing.
- Paul announces that God’s salvation has been sent to the Gentiles.
- The Gentiles’ hearing continues the mission promised throughout Scripture.
- The book ends with the kingdom and the Lord Jesus Christ proclaimed in Rome.
- The hope of Israel gathers the promises of resurrection, kingdom, Messiah, and restoration.
- Moses and the Prophets provide the scriptural foundation for Paul’s teaching about Jesus.
- Isaiah’s hardening oracle explains covenantal unbelief among those who hear but do not understand.
- The Gentile reception of salvation fulfills the prophetic expectation that God’s salvation reaches the nations.
- The kingdom of God theme connects the whole biblical storyline to the reign fulfilled and proclaimed in Christ.
Canonical Connections
The Lord’s promise that Paul would testify in Rome reaches fulfillment.
Paul’s chains are tied to Israel’s hope, fulfilled in Jesus and resurrection.
Paul’s final Roman exposition matches Luke’s emphasis that Scripture points to Christ.
Paul applies Isaiah’s warning to those who hear but refuse to understand.
The announcement that Gentiles will listen continues the Acts pattern of Gentile reception.
Acts begins and ends with the kingdom of God.
The word continues to advance despite opposition, imprisonment, and distance.
Cross References
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Truly the signs of an apostle were worked among you in all perseverance, in signs and wonders and mighty works.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
in which I suffer hardship to the point of chains as a criminal. But God’s word isn’t chained.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
But the Lord stood by me and strengthened me, that through me the message might be fully proclaimed, and that all the Gentiles might hear. So I was delivered out of the mouth of the lion.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you. You will be witnesses to me in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the uttermost parts of the earth.”
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Paul and Barnabas spoke out boldly, and said, “It was necessary that God’s word should be spoken to you first. Since indeed you thrust it from yourselves, and judge yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold, we turn to the Gentiles. For...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
When the multitude saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voice, saying in the language of Lycaonia, “The gods have come down to us in the likeness of men!” They called Barnabas “Jupiter”, and Paul “Mercury”, because he was the chief...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Now after these things had ended, Paul determined in the Spirit, when he had passed through Macedonia and Achaia, to go to Jerusalem, saying, “After I have been there, I must also see Rome.”
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
But when Paul perceived that the one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, “Men and brothers, I am a Pharisee, a son of Pharisees. Concerning the hope and resurrection of the dead I am being judged!”
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Now I stand here to be judged for the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers, which our twelve tribes, earnestly serving night and day, hope to attain. Concerning this hope I am accused by the Jews, King Agrippa! Why is it judged...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
praying together for us also, that God may open to us a door for the word, to speak the mystery of Christ, for which I am also in bonds, that I may reveal it as I ought to speak.
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
But though he had done so many signs before them, yet they didn’t believe in him, that the word of Isaiah the prophet might be fulfilled, which he spoke, “Lord, who has believed our report? To whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?”...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Heal the sick who are there, and tell them, ‘God’s Kingdom has come near to you.’
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
He said to them, “This is what I told you, while I was still with you, that all things which are written in the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms, concerning me must be fulfilled.” Then he opened their minds, that they might...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
they will take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it will in no way hurt them; they will lay hands on the sick, and they will recover.”
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Now I desire to have you know, brothers, that the things which happened to me have turned out rather to the progress of the Good News, so that it became evident to the whole palace guard, and to all the rest, that my bonds are in Christ,...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, that your faith is proclaimed throughout the whole world. For God is my witness, whom I serve in my spirit in the Good News of his Son, how unceasingly I make mention of you always...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
But they didn’t all listen to the glad news. For Isaiah says, “Lord, who has believed our report?” So faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God. But I say, didn’t they hear? Yes, most certainly, “Their sound went out into all...
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
Now I say that Christ has been made a servant of the circumcision for the truth of God, that he might confirm the promises given to the fathers,
Clarifies how the passage points to the gospel of Christ.
who are Israelites; whose is the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the service, and the promises; of whom are the fathers, and from whom is Christ as concerning the flesh, who is over all, God, blessed forever....
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Dominion was given him, and glory, and a kingdom, that all the peoples, nations, and languages should serve him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion, which will not pass away, and his kingdom that which will not be destroyed.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Indeed, he says, “It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob, and to restore the preserved of Israel. I will also give you as a light to the nations, that you may be my salvation to the end of the...
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
How beautiful on the mountains are the feet of him who brings good news, who publishes peace, who brings good news, who proclaims salvation, who says to Zion, “Your God reigns!”
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Yet it pleased Yahweh to bruise him. He has caused him to suffer. When you make his soul an offering for sin, he will see his offspring. He will prolong his days and Yahweh’s pleasure will prosper in his hand. After the suffering of his...
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Surely he has borne our sickness and carried our suffering; yet we considered him plagued, struck by God, and afflicted. But he was pierced for our transgressions. He was crushed for our iniquities. The punishment that brought our peace...
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
He said, “Go, and tell this people, ‘You hear indeed, but don’t understand. You see indeed, but don’t perceive.’ Make the heart of this people fat. Make their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes, hear with their...
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Shows Old Testament grounding that frames or supports this passage.
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
The following night, the Lord stood by him and said, “Cheer up, Paul, for as you have testified about me at Jerusalem, so you must testify also at Rome.”
Provides immediate literary context around the same argument flow.
and the rest should follow, some on planks, and some on other things from the ship. So they all escaped safely to the land.
Gospel Clarity
Acts 28 clarifies the gospel as the proclamation of the kingdom of God and the teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ from the Scriptures. Jesus fulfills the hope of Israel, divides hearers by belief and unbelief, and sends God’s salvation to the Gentiles. The gospel remains unhindered even while its messenger is chained.
Gospel Guardrails
- Paul reaches Rome as the Lord promised.
- Paul’s chains are connected to the hope of Israel.
- The kingdom of God is explained and proclaimed.
- Jesus is taught from the Law of Moses and the Prophets.
- Some are persuaded concerning Jesus.
- Others refuse to believe.
- Isaiah’s warning explains hardened unbelief.
- Turning would lead to healing.
- God’s salvation has been sent to the Gentiles.
- The Gentiles will listen.
- Paul welcomes all who come.
- Paul proclaims the kingdom with all boldness.
- Paul teaches about the Lord Jesus Christ without hindrance.
- Do not detach Jesus from the kingdom of God.
- Do not detach Jesus from Moses and the Prophets.
- Do not assume possession of Scripture guarantees faithful hearing.
- Do not confuse mixed response with ministry failure.
- Do not treat chains or limitations as the hindrance of God’s word.
- Do not turn Gentile inclusion into contempt for Jewish hearers.
- Do not let unresolved personal circumstances silence proclamation.
Gospel Cross References
Truly the signs of an apostle were worked among you in all perseverance, in signs and wonders and mighty works.
in which I suffer hardship to the point of chains as a criminal. But God’s word isn’t chained.
But the Lord stood by me and strengthened me, that through me the message might be fully proclaimed, and that all the Gentiles might hear. So I was delivered out of the mouth of the lion.
But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you. You will be witnesses to me in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the uttermost parts of the earth.”
Paul and Barnabas spoke out boldly, and said, “It was necessary that God’s word should be spoken to you first. Since indeed you thrust it from yourselves, and judge yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold, we turn to the Gentiles. For...
When the multitude saw what Paul had done, they lifted up their voice, saying in the language of Lycaonia, “The gods have come down to us in the likeness of men!” They called Barnabas “Jupiter”, and Paul “Mercury”, because he was the chief...
Now after these things had ended, Paul determined in the Spirit, when he had passed through Macedonia and Achaia, to go to Jerusalem, saying, “After I have been there, I must also see Rome.”
But when Paul perceived that the one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, “Men and brothers, I am a Pharisee, a son of Pharisees. Concerning the hope and resurrection of the dead I am being judged!”
Now I stand here to be judged for the hope of the promise made by God to our fathers, which our twelve tribes, earnestly serving night and day, hope to attain. Concerning this hope I am accused by the Jews, King Agrippa! Why is it judged...
praying together for us also, that God may open to us a door for the word, to speak the mystery of Christ, for which I am also in bonds, that I may reveal it as I ought to speak.
But though he had done so many signs before them, yet they didn’t believe in him, that the word of Isaiah the prophet might be fulfilled, which he spoke, “Lord, who has believed our report? To whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?”...
Heal the sick who are there, and tell them, ‘God’s Kingdom has come near to you.’
He said to them, “This is what I told you, while I was still with you, that all things which are written in the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms, concerning me must be fulfilled.” Then he opened their minds, that they might...
they will take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it will in no way hurt them; they will lay hands on the sick, and they will recover.”
Now I desire to have you know, brothers, that the things which happened to me have turned out rather to the progress of the Good News, so that it became evident to the whole palace guard, and to all the rest, that my bonds are in Christ,...
First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, that your faith is proclaimed throughout the whole world. For God is my witness, whom I serve in my spirit in the Good News of his Son, how unceasingly I make mention of you always...
But they didn’t all listen to the glad news. For Isaiah says, “Lord, who has believed our report?” So faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God. But I say, didn’t they hear? Yes, most certainly, “Their sound went out into all...
Now I say that Christ has been made a servant of the circumcision for the truth of God, that he might confirm the promises given to the fathers,
who are Israelites; whose is the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the service, and the promises; of whom are the fathers, and from whom is Christ as concerning the flesh, who is over all, God, blessed forever....
Primary Emphasis
Acts 28 presents Jesus as the fulfillment of Israel’s hope, the center of Moses and the Prophets, the Lord whose kingdom is proclaimed, and the Christ taught boldly in Rome without hindrance.
Chapter Contribution
Acts 28 argues that God fulfills His promise to bring Paul to Rome and that the gospel remains unhindered even when its messenger is under guard. Paul is preserved from shipwreck, snakebite, sickness, and legal obstruction. In Rome He proclaims the kingdom and Jesus from the Scriptures. Some believe and others reject, but God’s salvation goes to the Gentiles, and the book closes with bold, unhindered proclamation.
Doctrines in This Chapter
Teaching about the Lord Jesus defines apostolic ministry.
Unbelievers display kindness within God’s providence.
The gospel fulfills the expectation of Israel.
God protects His servant in fulfillment of mission.
Christian community strengthens weary servants.
Christ’s word about Rome is brought to completion.
Miraculous healing confirms gospel presence without deifying the messenger.
Hearers are accountable for belief or rejection.
Paul distinguishes gospel proclamation from criminal wrongdoing.
The gospel calls for thoughtful engagement.
Persistent unbelief fulfills prophetic warning.
The reign of God is proclaimed as fulfilled in Christ.
The gospel reaches the center of imperial power.
Spirit-given courage sustains witness in confinement.
Guarded freedom becomes a platform for witness.
Misguided conclusions are corrected by observable truth.
Jesus is revealed through Moses and the Prophets.
Earthly chains cannot restrain God’s saving message.
The Christian message faces widespread resistance.
Doctrinal Weight
God preserves Paul through shipwreck, viper bite, winter delay, and Roman custody until He reaches Rome.
Paul prays, lays hands on Publius’s father, heals Him, and many others are cured.
Paul says He is bound with a chain because of the hope of Israel.
Paul explains and proclaims the kingdom of God in Rome.
Paul persuades concerning Jesus from the Law of Moses and the Prophets.
Paul applies Isaiah’s warning about hearing without understanding and seeing without perceiving.
Paul declares that God’s salvation has been sent to the Gentiles and they will listen.
Paul proclaims the kingdom and teaches Jesus with all boldness.
Acts ends with the gospel proclaimed without hindrance despite Paul’s imprisonment.
Reading Lenses
Theological exposition and fulfillment
- Acts 28 clarifies the gospel as the proclamation of the kingdom of God and the teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ from the Scriptures. Jesus fulfills the hope of Israel, divides hearers by belief and unbelief, and sends God’s salvation to the Gentiles. The gospel remains unhindered even while its messenger is chained.
Key Greek Terms
Sense Bring safely through, rescue
Definition The survivors are brought safely through the shipwreck.
References Acts 28:1
Lexicon Bring safely through, rescue
Why it matters Acts 28 opens by confirming the preservation promised in Acts 27.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Not ordinary, unusual, remarkable
Definition The islanders show unusual kindness.
References Acts 28:2
Lexicon Not ordinary, unusual, remarkable
Why it matters Providential kindness comes through unexpected people.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Kindness, humanity, benevolence
Definition The islanders welcome the survivors kindly.
References Acts 28:2
Lexicon Kindness, humanity, benevolence
Why it matters Luke highlights humane care as a means of provision after disaster.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Viper, poisonous snake
Definition A viper fastens onto Paul’s hand.
References Acts 28:3
Lexicon Viper, poisonous snake
Why it matters The apparent threat fails to prevent God’s purpose for Paul.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Justice, punishment, vengeance
Definition The islanders suppose Justice is punishing Paul.
References Acts 28:4
Lexicon Justice, punishment, vengeance
Why it matters Their interpretation shows pagan moral assumptions apart from revelation.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Shake off
Definition Paul shakes the viper into the fire.
References Acts 28:5
Lexicon Shake off
Why it matters Paul is preserved calmly and decisively from the threat.
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Neuter What is this?
Sense Harm, evil, injury
Definition Paul suffers no harm from the viper.
References Acts 28:5
Lexicon Harm, evil, injury
Why it matters God preserves Paul for His appointed witness in Rome.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Form in passage Dative · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense First, chief, leading
Definition Publius is the chief official of the island.
References Acts 28:7
Lexicon First, chief, leading
Why it matters God opens ministry in Malta through a leading household.
Form in passage Aorist · Middle · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Receive, welcome
Definition Publius welcomes Paul and his companions.
References Acts 28:7
Lexicon Receive, welcome
Why it matters Hospitality provides space for mercy ministry.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense Host, entertain as guest
Definition Publius hosts them for three days.
References Acts 28:7
Lexicon Host, entertain as guest
Why it matters Hospitality becomes a practical channel of providence.
Form in passage Aorist · Middle · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Pray
Definition Paul prays before healing Publius’s father.
References Acts 28:8
Lexicon Pray
Why it matters The healing is dependent on God, not Paul’s innate power.
Form in passage Aorist · Middle · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense Heal, cure
Definition Paul heals Publius’s father.
References Acts 28:8
Lexicon Heal, cure
Why it matters God’s mercy is displayed among the Maltese through Paul.
Form in passage Imperfect · Passive · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense Heal, cure, serve
Definition The rest of the sick on the island are cured.
References Acts 28:9
Lexicon Heal, cure, serve
Why it matters The healing mercy extends beyond one household to many.
Form in passage Dative · Plural · Feminine What is this?
Sense Honor, respect, value
Definition The islanders honor Paul and his companions in many ways.
References Acts 28:10
Lexicon Honor, respect, value
Why it matters God provides favor and supplies after suffering.
Sense Brothers, fellow believers
Definition Paul finds believers at Puteoli.
References Acts 28:14-15
Lexicon Brothers, fellow believers
Why it matters The gospel has already reached places ahead of Paul’s arrival in Rome.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Give thanks
Definition Paul thanks God when he sees the believers who came to meet him.
References Acts 28:15
Lexicon Give thanks
Why it matters Christian fellowship is received as a gift from God.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense Receive courage, take heart
Definition Paul takes courage when believers meet him.
References Acts 28:15
Lexicon Receive courage, take heart
Why it matters God strengthens His servants through the presence of the church.
Form in passage Present · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Guard, keep watch
Definition Paul lives with a soldier guarding him.
References Acts 28:16
Lexicon Guard, keep watch
Why it matters Paul remains restricted, yet His witness is not restricted.
Form in passage Dative · Plural · Neuter What is this?
Sense Customs, practices
Definition Paul says he has done nothing against ancestral customs.
References Acts 28:17
Lexicon Customs, practices
Why it matters He denies being an enemy of Israel’s traditions.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Infinitive What is this?
Sense Release, set free
Definition The Romans wanted to release Paul because he had done nothing deserving death.
References Acts 28:18
Lexicon Release, set free
Why it matters Paul’s legal innocence is again emphasized.
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Hope, confident expectation
Definition Paul is chained because of the hope of Israel.
References Acts 28:20
Lexicon Hope, confident expectation
Why it matters The gospel is tied to Israel’s hope fulfilled in Christ.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Form in passage Accusative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Chain, bond
Definition Paul wears a chain because of the hope of Israel.
References Acts 28:20
Lexicon Chain, bond
Why it matters His imprisonment becomes the visible cost of resurrection hope.
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Sect, party, faction
Definition The Jewish leaders say this sect is spoken against everywhere.
References Acts 28:22
Lexicon Sect, party, faction
Why it matters Christian faith is publicly disputed, yet Paul explains it from Scripture.
Individual words ἐξετίθετο καθεξῆς exetitheto kathexēs · τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον διαμαρτύρεται to pneuma to hagion diamartyretai
Form in passage Imperfect · Middle · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense Explain, set forth, solemnly testify
Definition Paul explains and testifies concerning the kingdom of God.
References Acts 28:23
Lexicon Explain, set forth, solemnly testify
Why it matters His teaching is both careful exposition and solemn witness.
Individual words βασιλείαν ἀσάλευτον basileian asaleuton · βδέλυγμα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ bdelygma enōpion tou theou
Sense Kingdom, reign, rule of God
Definition Paul explains and proclaims the kingdom of God.
References Acts 28:23, 31
Lexicon Kingdom, reign, rule of God
Why it matters Acts closes where it began: with the kingdom of God proclaimed through Christ.
Form in passage Present · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Persuade, convince
Definition Paul tries to persuade them about Jesus.
References Acts 28:23
Lexicon Persuade, convince
Why it matters Christian witness includes reasoned persuasion from Scripture.
Sense Jesus
Definition Paul persuades concerning Jesus from Moses and the Prophets.
References Acts 28:23
Lexicon Jesus
Why it matters Jesus is the center of Paul’s final recorded exposition.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Individual words πάντες οἱ προφῆται καὶ ὁ νόμος pantes hoi prophētai kai ho nomos · νόμῳ Μωϋσέως καὶ τοῖς προφήταις καὶ ψαλμοῖς nomō Mōuseōs kai tois prophētais kai psalmois
Form in passage Genitive · Singular · Masculine What is this?
Sense Law of Moses
Definition Paul argues about Jesus from the Law of Moses.
References Acts 28:23
Lexicon Law of Moses
Why it matters Jesus is proclaimed as fulfillment of Torah, not as contradiction of it.
Sense Prophets
Definition Paul argues about Jesus from the Prophets.
References Acts 28:23
Lexicon Prophets
Why it matters The prophetic Scriptures point to Christ and the kingdom.
Form in passage Imperfect · Passive · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense Be persuaded, believe
Definition Some are persuaded by Paul’s message.
References Acts 28:24
Lexicon Be persuaded, believe
Why it matters Scripture-based witness bears fruit in faith.
Form in passage Imperfect · Active · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense Disbelieve, refuse faith
Definition Others do not believe Paul’s message.
References Acts 28:24
Lexicon Disbelieve, refuse faith
Why it matters Unbelief persists even under sustained biblical persuasion.
Sense Holy Spirit
Definition Paul says the Holy Spirit spoke through Isaiah.
References Acts 28:25
Lexicon Holy Spirit
Why it matters Scripture is treated as Spirit-spoken revelation.
Form in passage Dative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Hear, hear with the ear
Definition Isaiah says the people will hear but not understand.
References Acts 28:26
Lexicon Hear, hear with the ear
Why it matters Physical hearing without spiritual understanding is a mark of judgment.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Subjunctive · 2nd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense Understand, comprehend
Definition The people hear but do not understand.
References Acts 28:26
Lexicon Understand, comprehend
Why it matters The warning presses the need for Spirit-given reception of the word.
Form in passage Present · Active · Participle · Plural What is this?
Sense See, perceive
Definition Isaiah says they will see but not perceive.
References Acts 28:26
Lexicon See, perceive
Why it matters Exposure to revelation does not guarantee spiritual perception.
Form in passage Nominative · Singular · Feminine What is this?
Sense Heart, inner person
Definition The people’s hearts have become calloused.
References Acts 28:27
Lexicon Heart, inner person
Why it matters The root problem is inward hardness toward God’s word.
Form in passage Aorist · Active · Subjunctive · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense Turn, return, convert
Definition If they turned, God would heal them.
References Acts 28:27
Lexicon Turn, return, convert
Why it matters The warning implies the gracious possibility of turning and healing.
Form in passage Future · Middle · Indicative · 1st Person · Singular What is this?
Sense Heal, restore
Definition God would heal those who turned.
References Acts 28:27
Lexicon Heal, restore
Why it matters Spiritual healing is offered to those who rightly hear, see, understand, and turn.
Sense Salvation, saving message
Definition God’s salvation has been sent to the Gentiles.
References Acts 28:28
Lexicon Salvation, saving message
Why it matters Acts closes with salvation extending to the nations.
Form in passage Dative · Plural · Neuter What is this?
Sense Nations, Gentiles
Definition God’s salvation is sent to the Gentiles.
References Acts 28:28
Lexicon Nations, Gentiles
Why it matters The mission to the nations reaches a climactic reaffirmation.
Form in passage Future · Middle · Indicative · 3rd Person · Plural What is this?
Sense Hear, listen
Definition Paul says the Gentiles will listen.
References Acts 28:28
Lexicon Hear, listen
Why it matters Gentile reception contrasts with hardened refusal among some Jewish hearers.
Form in passage Imperfect · Middle · Indicative · 3rd Person · Singular What is this?
Sense Receive, welcome
Definition Paul welcomes all who come to him.
References Acts 28:30
Lexicon Receive, welcome
Why it matters His restricted lodging becomes an open ministry space.
Form in passage Present · Active · Participle · Singular What is this?
Sense Proclaim, herald, preach
Definition Paul proclaims the kingdom of God.
References Acts 28:31
Lexicon Proclaim, herald, preach
Why it matters Acts ends with heralded proclamation, not silence.
Sense Teach, instruct
Definition Paul teaches about the Lord Jesus Christ.
References Acts 28:31
Lexicon Teach, instruct
Why it matters The mission includes sustained instruction in Christ.
Cross-language bridge 1 link · View in lexicon
Sense Lord, master, sovereign
Definition Paul teaches about the Lord Jesus Christ.
References Acts 28:31
Lexicon Lord, master, sovereign
Why it matters Jesus is proclaimed as the sovereign Lord.
Sense Messiah, Christ, Anointed One
Definition Paul teaches about Jesus as the Christ.
References Acts 28:31
Lexicon Messiah, Christ, Anointed One
Why it matters The final line identifies Jesus as the Messiah at the center of apostolic teaching.
Sense Boldness, openness, confidence
Definition Paul teaches with all boldness.
References Acts 28:31
Lexicon Boldness, openness, confidence
Why it matters The Spirit-empowered witness continues openly even under guard.
Sense Unhindered, without obstruction
Definition Paul’s proclamation continues without hindrance.
References Acts 28:31
Lexicon Unhindered, without obstruction
Why it matters The final word of Acts declares the unstoppable progress of the gospel.
Lexicon data: MorphGNT Strong's Dictionary XML (CC0) · Open Scriptures Hebrew Bible (CC BY 4.0) · Open Scriptures Hebrew Lexicon (CC BY 4.0) · STEPBible Data (CC BY 4.0) · Full details
Discourse Connectives (38)
grounds / explanation 4inference / conclusion 3content marker or causal 4continuation or mild contrast 19contrast setup (μέν...δέ) 3additive / emphatic 5
| v.1 | καὶAndadditive / emphaticClause-initial καί in Paul often links equal-weight clauses that should be read together.ὅτιthatcontent marker or causalIf ὅτι follows a verb of speaking/knowing/believing, it introduces content. If it follows a statement, it introduces a reason. |
| v.2 | γὰρforgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point. |
| v.3 | δὲnowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.4 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.5 | μὲνindeedcontrast setup (μέν...δέ)The μέν...δέ pair is a rhetorical hinge. Both sides matter equally.οὖνtheninference / conclusionAsk: what has Paul argued up to this point? 'Therefore' is the payoff. |
| v.6 | δὲButcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast.δὲhowevercontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.7 | δὲnowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.8 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.9 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.11 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.12 | καὶAndadditive / emphaticClause-initial καί in Paul often links equal-weight clauses that should be read together. |
| v.15 | κἀκεῖθενAnd from thereadditive / emphaticClause-initial καί in Paul often links equal-weight clauses that should be read together. |
| v.16 | δὲnowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast.δὲNowcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.17 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast.δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.19 | δὲhowevercontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.20 | οὖνthereforeinference / conclusionAsk: what has Paul argued up to this point? 'Therefore' is the payoff.γὰρforgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point. |
| v.21 | δὲAndcontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.22 | δὲhowevercontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast.μὲνtrulycontrast setup (μέν...δέ)The μέν...δέ pair is a rhetorical hinge. Both sides matter equally.γὰρforgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point.ὅτιthatcontent marker or causalIf ὅτι follows a verb of speaking/knowing/believing, it introduces content. If it follows a statement, it introduces a reason. |
| v.23 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.24 | καὶAndadditive / emphaticClause-initial καί in Paul often links equal-weight clauses that should be read together.μὲνindeedcontrast setup (μέν...δέ)The μέν...δέ pair is a rhetorical hinge. Both sides matter equally.δὲhowevercontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
| v.25 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast.ὅτιthatcontent marker or causalIf ὅτι follows a verb of speaking/knowing/believing, it introduces content. If it follows a statement, it introduces a reason. |
| v.27 | γὰρforgrounds / explanationAsk: what claim is this 'for' grounding? That claim is the main point. |
| v.28 | οὖνthereforeinference / conclusionAsk: what has Paul argued up to this point? 'Therefore' is the payoff.ὅτιthatcontent marker or causalIf ὅτι follows a verb of speaking/knowing/believing, it introduces content. If it follows a statement, it introduces a reason. |
| v.29 | Καὶandadditive / emphaticClause-initial καί in Paul often links equal-weight clauses that should be read together. |
| v.30 | δὲthencontinuation or mild contrastNote where δέ appears in a μέν...δέ pair — that structure is a deliberate contrast. |
Discourse data: STEPBible TAGNT (CC BY 4.0)
Verb Aspect (125 main verbs)
completed 33ongoing 4prospective 4imperative 2subjunctive 6background 15infinitive 14participle 47
| v.1 | διασωθέντεςdiasṓzōbrought safely throughaorist passive participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐπέγνωμενepiginṓskōfound outaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.2 | παρεῖχονparéchōshowedimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionτυχοῦσανtynchánōextraordinaryaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἅψαντεςkindledaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionπροσελάβοντοproslambánōwelcomedaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐφεστῶταephístēmibegunperfect active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.3 | συστρέψαντοςsystréphōgatheredaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐπιθέντοςepitíthēmiputaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐξελθοῦσαexérchomaicame outaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionκαθῆψεkatháptōfastened ~ onaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.4 | εἶδονhoráōsawaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionκρεμάμενονkremánnymihangingpresent middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἔλεγονlégōsaidimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionδιασωθένταdiasṓzōescapedaorist passive participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionζῆνzáōlivepresent active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbεἴασενeáōallowedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.5 | ἀποτινάξαςshook offaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἔπαθενpáschōsufferedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.6 | προσεδόκωνprosdokáōexpectingimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionμέλλεινméllōwouldpresent active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbπίμπρασθαιpímprēmiswell uppresent passive infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbκαταπίπτεινkatapíptōfall downpresent active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbπροσδοκώντωνprosdokáōwaitedpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionθεωρούντωνtheōréōsawpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionγινόμενονgínomaihappenpresent middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionμεταβαλόμενοιmetabállōchanged ~ mindsaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἔλεγονlégōsaidimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past action |
| v.7 | ὑπῆρχενhypárchōwereimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionἀναδεξάμενοςwelcomedaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐξένισενxenízōentertainedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.8 | ἐγένετοgínomaihappenedaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionσυνεχόμενονsynéchōsufferingpresent passive participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionκατακεῖσθαιkatákeimailay sickpresent middle infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbεἰσελθὼνeisérchomaiwent inaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionπροσευξάμενοςproseúchomaiprayingaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐπιθεὶςepitíthēmilaidaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἰάσατοiáomaihealedaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.9 | γενομένουgínomaihappenedaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἔχοντεςéchōhadpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionπροσήρχοντοprosérchomaicameimperfect middle indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionἐθεραπεύοντοtherapeúōcuredimperfect passive indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past action |
| v.10 | ἐτίμησανtimáōhonoredaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἀναγομένοιςsailpresent passive participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐπέθεντοepitíthēmigaveaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.11 | ἀνήχθημενset sailaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionπαρακεχειμακότιparacheimázōwinteredperfect active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.12 | καταχθέντεςkatágōputting inaorist passive participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐπεμείναμενepiménōstayedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.13 | περιελόντεςperiairéōweighed anchoraorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionκατηντήσαμενkatantáōarrivedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐπιγενομένουepigínomaisprang upaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἤλθομενérchomaicameaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.14 | εὑρόντεςheurískōfoundaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionπαρεκλήθημενparakaléōinvitedaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐπιμεῖναιepiménōstayaorist active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbἤλθαμενérchomaicameaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.15 | ἀκούσαντεςheardaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἦλθανérchomaicameaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἰδὼνhoráōsawaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionεὐχαριστήσαςeucharistéōthankedaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἔλαβεlambánōtookaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.16 | εἰσήλθομενeisérchomaicameaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐπετράπηepitrépōallowedaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionμένεινménōstaypresent active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbφυλάσσοντιphylássōguardedpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.17 | Ἐγένετοgínomaihappenedaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionσυγκαλέσασθαιsynkaléōcalled togetheraorist middle infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbσυνελθόντωνsynérchomaiassembledaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἔλεγενlégōsaidimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionποιήσαςpoiéōdoneaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionπαρεδόθηνparadídōmideliveredaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.18 | ἀνακρίναντέςexaminedaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐβούλοντοboúlomaiwantedimperfect middle indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionἀπολῦσαιreleaseaorist active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verb |
| v.19 | ἀντιλεγόντωνobjectedpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἠναγκάσθηνcompelledaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐπικαλέσασθαιepikaléomaiappeal toaorist middle infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbἔχωνéchōhadpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionκατηγορεῖνkatēgoréōcharge to bring againstpresent active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verb |
| v.20 | παρεκάλεσαparakaléōaskedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἰδεῖνhoráōseeaorist active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbπροσλαλῆσαιproslaléōspeakaorist active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbπερίκειμαιperíkeimaiwearingpresent passive indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.21 | εἶπανépōsaidaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐδεξάμεθαdéchomaireceivedaorist middle indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionπαραγενόμενόςparagínomaicomeaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.22 | ἀξιοῦμενdesirepresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthἀκοῦσαιhearaorist active infinitiveinfinitiveInfinitive — verbal noun or complementary verbφρονεῖςphronéōviewspresent active indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truthἀντιλέγεταιspoken againstpresent passive indicativeongoingPresent indicative — ongoing, habitual, or general truth |
| v.23 | Ταξάμενοιtássōsetaorist middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἧκονhḗkōcameimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionἐξετίθετοektíthēmiexplainedimperfect middle indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionδιαμαρτυρόμενοςdiamartýromaitestifyingpresent middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionπείθωνpeíthōconvincepresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.24 | ἐπείθοντοpeíthōconvincedimperfect passive indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionλεγομένοιςlégōsaidpresent passive participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἠπίστουνnot believeimperfect active indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past action |
| v.25 | ἀπελύοντοleaveimperfect middle indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionεἰπόντοςlégōmadeaorist active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionἐλάλησενlaléōspokeaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed action |
| v.26 | λέγωνlégōsayingpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionΠορεύθητιporeúomaigoaorist passive imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationεἰπόνépōsayaorist active imperativeimperativeImperative mood — command or exhortationἀκούσετεhearfuture active indicativeprospectiveFuture indicative — anticipated or promised actionσυνῆτεsyníēmiunderstandaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentβλέποντεςseeingpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionβλέψετεseefuture active indicativeprospectiveFuture indicative — anticipated or promised actionἴδητεhoráōperceiveaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingent |
| v.27 | ἐπαχύνθηpachýnōgrown dullaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἤκουσανhearaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἐκάμμυσανkammýōclosedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἴδωσινhoráōseeaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentἀκούσωσινhearaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentσυνῶσινsyníēmiunderstandaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentἐπιστρέψωσινepistréphōturnaorist active subjunctivesubjunctiveSubjunctive mood — conditional, purpose, or contingentἰάσομαιiáomaihealfuture middle indicativeprospectiveFuture indicative — anticipated or promised action |
| v.28 | ἀπεστάληsentaorist passive indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἀκούσονταιlistenfuture middle indicativeprospectiveFuture indicative — anticipated or promised action |
| v.30 | Ἐνέμεινενemménōstayedaorist active indicativecompletedAorist indicative — punctiliar or completed actionἀπεδέχετοwelcomedimperfect middle indicativebackgroundImperfect indicative — continuous or repeated past actionεἰσπορευομένουςeisporeúomaicamepresent middle participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
| v.31 | κηρύσσωνkērýssōproclaimingpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting actionδιδάσκωνdidáskōteachingpresent active participleparticipleParticiple — verbal adjective, supporting action |
Verb forms indicate aspect — not interpretive weight. Consult context before drawing conclusions about emphasis.
Clause data: MACULA Greek (Clear Bible, CC BY 4.0) · SBLGNT (Logos/SBL, CC BY 4.0)
Word Pictures (Robertson)
A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (1930–31) — public domain
Formation Focus
Acts 28 teaches that God fulfills His promise, preserves His witness, and advances His kingdom through the proclamation of Jesus Christ even under restraint.
Believers must see that limitations do not hinder the word of God, and that faithful ministry continues through hospitality, healing, encouragement, Scripture exposition, and bold teaching.
Endurance, gratitude, courage, hospitality, scriptural clarity, gospel boldness, patience with hearers, and confidence in the unhindered word.
Practice Response
- Receive and extend hospitality in hardship.
- Reject superstitious or simplistic readings of suffering.
- Pray for mercy and serve the sick.
- Thank God when believers encourage You.
- Explain the hope of Israel fulfilled in Christ.
- Use Moses and the Prophets to persuade concerning Jesus.
- Expect both belief and unbelief.
- Warn against hardened hearing.
- Proclaim salvation to all peoples.
- Welcome those who come to hear.
- Teach the kingdom and the Lord Jesus Christ with boldness.
Warnings and Misreadings
- Acts 28 warns against hearing without understanding, seeing without perceiving, and closing one’s heart against God’s salvation. Isaiah’s word presses the danger of hardened unbelief, especially among those who possess Scripture yet refuse the Messiah to whom Scripture points.
- Treating Acts 28 as an abrupt or incomplete ending instead of a deliberate conclusion emphasizing the unhindered word.
- Making the final focus Paul’s unresolved legal outcome rather than the ongoing proclamation of the kingdom and Christ.
- Reading the viper episode as superstition rather than a display of providential preservation.
- Assuming the islanders’ claim that Paul is a god is affirmed by Luke, when it reflects their mistaken interpretation.
- Overlooking the role of prayer in the healing of Publius’s father.
- Missing the encouragement Paul receives from ordinary believers on the road to Rome.
- Treating Paul’s appeal to Jewish leaders as unnecessary, when Acts maintains the pattern of witness to Jews and Gentiles.
- Separating the kingdom of God from teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ.
- Using Isaiah’s hardening text to excuse unbelief rather than warn against it.
- Assuming Gentile reception means God has no further concern for Jews, when the chapter shows Paul still beginning with Jewish leaders and reasoning from Israel’s Scriptures.
- Missing that 'without hindrance' is the final theological note of Acts.
Discipleship Questions
- Do I recognize God’s kindness when it comes through unexpected people?
- Am I quick to judge suffering as punishment, like the islanders initially judged Paul?
- When God preserves me, do I use that preservation for service?
- Do I pray with confidence that God can show mercy through healing and care?
- Who are the believers God has used to help me take courage?
- Can I explain how Jesus fulfills the hope of Israel from the Scriptures?
- Am I willing to speak from morning until evening if that is what patient persuasion requires?
- Do I receive God’s word with open ears, open eyes, and a softened heart?
- Where am I in danger of hearing but not understanding?
- Do I rejoice that God’s salvation has gone to the Gentiles?
- What does bold and unhindered witness look like within my current limitations?
Pastoral Applications
- Use Acts 28 to show that God’s mission often advances through unwanted circumstances, including shipwreck, delay, and custody.
- Teach that providence includes hospitality, healing, encouragement, rented houses, and guarded freedom.
- Warn against shallow interpretations of suffering that assume every calamity is direct punishment.
- Highlight Paul’s prayer and laying on of hands as compassionate ministry, not spectacle.
- Encourage churches to be like the believers who met Paul and strengthened Him.
- Teach that the hope of Israel is fulfilled in Jesus, not abandoned by the gospel.
- Train believers to reason from the whole Scripture concerning Christ.
- Prepare the church for divided responses · persuasion and unbelief often stand side by side.
- Use Isaiah’s warning to press hearers not to become dull, calloused, or closed.
- Emphasize that the final word of Acts is not imprisonment but unhindered proclamation.
- Call believers to proclaim the kingdom of God and teach the Lord Jesus Christ with boldness wherever God has placed them.
Pastoral Trajectories
The survivors arrive exhausted on Malta and receive unexpected kindness from the islanders.
Paul survives another apparent death threat, showing that God’s promise still governs His life.
The islanders misinterpret Paul, yet Paul serves them through healing and prayer.
After winter, Paul’s journey resumes, demonstrating that delay does not cancel God’s destination.
Believers come to meet Paul, and He thanks God and takes courage.
Paul’s house arrest becomes a setting for explaining the hope of Israel.
Paul persuades concerning Jesus from Moses and the Prophets, and the audience divides.
Paul interprets unbelief through Isaiah and announces that the Gentiles will listen.
Acts ends with Paul still guarded, but the kingdom and Christ proclaimed without hindrance.
Motifs in This Chapter
Trace servant identity, obedient mission, and suffering service across Scripture.
Study kingdom reign, divine rule, and gospel kingdom proclamation across Scripture.
Trace remnant preservation, covenant continuity, and mercy under judgment across Scripture.
Track judgment as covenant accountability, divine justice, and eschatological reckoning.
Trace the Spirit's presence, empowerment, renewal, and mission-bearing work across Scripture.
The Biblical World
Chapter At A Glance
Paul survives Malta, heals many, arrives in Rome, explains His case to Jewish leaders, expounds the kingdom from the Scriptures, warns through Isaiah about unbelief, announces Gentile reception of God’s salvation, and continues proclaiming Christ unhindered.
Acts 28 closes by identifying Paul’s message with the hope of Israel and the kingdom of God, explained from Moses and the Prophets. Jewish unbelief is interpreted through Isaiah’s prophetic warning, while Gentile reception fulfills the outward movement of salvation. The covenant promises are not abandoned; they are fulfilled in Jesus and proclaimed to all nations.
Acts 28 clarifies the gospel as the proclamation of the kingdom of God and the teaching of the Lord Jesus Christ from the Scriptures. Jesus fulfills the hope of Israel, divides hearers by belief and unbelief, and sends God’s salvation to the Gentiles. The gospel remains unhindered even while its messenger is chained.
Endurance, gratitude, courage, hospitality, scriptural clarity, gospel boldness, patience with hearers, and confidence in the unhindered word.
Focus Points
- God’s fulfilled promise
- Providential preservation
- Unexpected Gentile kindness
- Healing and mercy
- Paul’s arrival in Rome
- Encouragement through believers
- The hope of Israel
- Kingdom of God proclamation
- Jesus explained from Moses and the Prophets
- Divided response to the gospel
- Isaiah’s warning of hardened hearts
- Gentile reception of salvation
- Boldness under house arrest
- The word unhindered
- Mission continuing beyond Acts
- Providence
- Healing Mercy
- Hope of Israel
- Kingdom of God
- Jesus from Moses and the Prophets
- Hardened Unbelief
- Salvation Sent to the Gentiles
- Bold Proclamation
- Unhindered Word
Cross References
Now I exhort You to cheer up, for there will be no loss of life among You, but only of the ship. For there stood by me this night an angel, belonging to the God whose I am and whom I serve, saying, ‘Don’t be afraid, Paul. You must stand before Caesar. Behold, God has granted You all those who sail with You.’
Immediate promise background
The following night, the Lord stood by Him and said, “Cheer up, Paul, for as You have testified about me at Jerusalem, so You must testify also at Rome.”
Rome promise
He said to them, “This is what I told You, while I was still with You, that all things which are written in the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms, concerning me must be fulfilled.” Then He opened their minds, that they might understand the Scriptures. He said to them, “Thus it is written, and thus it was necessary for the Christ to suffer and to...
Scriptural Christ fulfillment
He said, “Go, and tell this people, ‘You hear indeed, but don’t understand. You see indeed, but don’t perceive.’ Make the heart of this people fat. Make their ears heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes, hear with their ears, understand with their heart, and turn again, and be healed.”
Hardening text
Paul and Barnabas spoke out boldly, and said, “It was necessary that God’s word should be spoken to You first. Since indeed You thrust it from Yourselves, and judge Yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold, we turn to the Gentiles. For so has the Lord commanded us, saying, ‘I have set You as a light for the Gentiles, that You should bring salvation to...
Gentile hearing pattern
When they opposed Him and blasphemed, He shook out His clothing and said to them, “Your blood be on Your own heads! I am clean. From now on, I will go to the Gentiles!”
Gentile mission reaffirmed
For I am not ashamed of the Good News of Christ, because it is the power of God for salvation for everyone who believes, for the Jew first, and also for the Greek.
Jew first and Gentile also
In which I suffer hardship to the point of chains as a criminal. But God’s word isn’t chained.
Word not chained
Passages
Chapter opening: Acts 28:1-10
Then we knew (τοτε επεγνωμεν). Second aorist (ingressive) active indicative of επιγινωσκω. Then we recognized. See 27:39 . Was called (καλειτα). Present passive indicative retained in indirect discourse. Melita (Μελιτη). Not Μιλετενη as only B reads, a clerical error, but retained in the text of Westcott and Hort because of B. Page notes that the island was Malta as is shown from the name, the location, the presence of a ship from Alexandria bound for Rome wintering there (verse 11 ), and the mention of Syracuse as the next stop after leaving (verse 12 ).
The barbarians (ο βαρβαρο). The Greeks called all men "barbarians" who did not speak Greek ( Ro 1:14 ), not "barbarians" in our sense of rude and uncivilized, but simply "foreign folk." Diodorus Siculus (V. 12) says that it was a colony of the Phoenicians and so their language was Punic (Page). The word originally meant an uncouth repetition (βαρβαρ) not understood by others ( 1Co 14:11 ).
In Col 3:11 Paul couples it with Scythian as certainly not Christian. These are (with verse 4 below) the only N. T. instances. Showed us (παρειχαν). Imperfect active of παρεχω with -αν instead of -ον as ειχαν in Mr 8:7 (Robertson, Grammar , p. 339). It was their habit on this occasion, Luke means, they kept on showing. No common kindness (ου την τυχουσαν φιλανθρωπιαν).
The old word φιλανθρωπια (φιλος, ανθρωπος), love of mankind, occurs in the N. T. only here and Tit 3:4 (adverb in 27:3 ). See on 19:11 for this use of ου την τυχουσαν, "not the kindness that happens every day." They were not "wreckers" to take advantage of the calamity. They kindled a fire (αψαντες πυραν). The only N. T. example and verse 3 of the old word πυρα (from πυρ, fire), a pile of burning fuel (sticks).
First aorist active participle of απτω, to set fire to, to kindle. Cf. αναπτω in Lu 12:49 . Received us all (προσελαβοντο παντας ημας). Second aorist middle (indirect indicative of προσλαμβανω. They took us all to themselves (cf. Ac 18:26 ). The present (τον εφεστωτα). Second perfect active participle (intransitive) of εφιστημ, "the rain that stood upon them" (the pouring rain).
Only in Luke and Paul in N. T.
When Paul had gathered (συστρεψαντος του Παυλου). Genitive absolute with first aorist active participle of συστρεφω, old verb to twist or turn together or roll into a bundle. In N. T. only here and Mt 17:22 . A bundle of sticks (φρυγανων τ πληθος). "Some multitude (or pile) of dry twigs" (φρυγανων from φρυγω or φρυσσω, to dry. Only here in N. T.) Laid (επιθεντος).
So genitive absolute again with second aorist active participle of επιτιθημ, to place upon. Few things show Paul to better advantage than this incident. By reason of the heat (απο της θερμης). Old word, only here in N. T. Ablative case with απο (from the heat). The viper was in a state of torpor in the bundle of sticks. The heat wakened him. A viper (εχιδνα).
The old word used by the Baptist of the Pharisees ( Mt 3:7 ; Lu 3:7 ) and by Jesus also ( Mt 12:34 ; 23:33 ). It is objected that there is little wood in the island today and no vipers, though Lewin as late as 1853 believes that he saw a viper near St. Paul's Bay. But the island now has 1,200 people to the square mile and snakes of any kind have a poor chance.
The viper has also disappeared from Arran as the island became more frequented (Knowling). Ramsay thinks that the small constrictor ( Coronella Austriaca ) which still exists in the island may be the "viper," though it has no poison fangs, but clings and bites. The natives thought that it was a poisonous viper. Fastened on his hand (καθηψε της χειρος αυτου).
First aorist active indicative of καθαπτω, to fasten down on with the genitive case. Old verb, here only in N. T. Cf. Mr 16:18 .
The beast (το θηριον). Diminutive of θηρ and so little beast. See on Mr 1:13 . Aristotle and the medical writers apply the word to venomous serpents, the viper in particular (Knowling), as Luke does here. Vincent calls attention to the curious history of our word " treacle " for molasses (Latin theriaca ) from θηριακη, an antidote made from the flesh of vipers.
Coverdale translates Jer 8:22 : "There is no more treacle in Gilead." Jeremy Taylor: "We kill the viper and make treacle of him." Hanging from his hand (κρεμαμενον εκ της χειρος αυτου). Vivid picture of the snake dangling from Paul's hand. Present middle participle of κρεμαμα, late form for κρεμαννυμ, to hang up, to suspend (cf. Ga 3:13 ). No doubt (παντως).
Literally, By all means, old adverb. Cf. 21:22 ; Lu 4:23 ; 1Co 9:22 . Only by Luke and Paul in the N. T. "They knew that he was a prisoner being taken to Rome on some grave charge, and inferred that the charge was murder" (Page). Though he hath escaped (διασωθεντα). First aorist passive participle of διασωζω (same verb used in 24:43 , 44 ; 28:1 ), so-called concessive use of the participle (Robertson, Grammar , p.
1129). Yet Justice (δικη). An abstraction personified like the Latin Justitia (Page). The natives speak of Δικη as a goddess, but we know nothing of such actual worship in Malta, though the Greeks worshipped abstractions as in Athens. Hath not suffered (ουκ ειασεν). Did not suffer. They look on Paul as a doomed man as good as dead. These people thought that calamity was proof of guilt, poor philosophy and worse theology.
Shook off (αποτιναξας). First aorist active participle of αποτινασσω, to shake off. Rare word (Euripides, Galen, LXX). In N.T. only here and Lu 9:5 .
But they expected (ο δε προσεδοκων). Imperfect active, were expecting, continued to expect. That he would have swollen (αυτον μελλειν πιμπρασθα). More exactly, "Expecting him to be about (or that he was about) to swell up." Πιμπρασθα is present middle infinitive from πιμπρημ, to blow, to burn, to inflame, to cause to swell. Πρηθω, to swell, seems connected and both use the aorist επρησα.
Our word "inflammation" likewise means a burning and a swelling. This verb is a common medical term used as Luke has it. It occurs here only in N. T. Or fallen down dead suddenly (η καταπιπτειν αφνω νεκρον). Rather, "or was about to fall down dead suddenly." The two common results of a bite by a viper or other poisonous snake, both medical terms used by Luke.
But when they were long in expectation (επ πολυ δε αυτων προσδοκωντων). Genitive absolute. "But while they were expecting for much time." Nothing amiss come to him (μηδεν ατοπον εις αυτον γινομενον). "Nothing out of place coming to him" (present middle participle). Μηδεν the usual negative of the participle and the accusative case the object of θεωρουντων (genitive absolute).
Changed their minds (μεταβαλομενο). Aorist middle (direct) participle of μεταβαλλω, old verb to turn about or around, turning themselves about, changing their minds. Plato uses this very verb in middle voice for changing the mind. That he was a god (αυτον εινα θεον). Accusative and infinitive in indirect discourse. At Lystra Paul was first received as a god (Mercury) and then they stoned him to kill him ( Ac 14:11 , 19 ).
So fickle is popular favour.
To the chief man of the island (τω πρωτω της νησου). An official title correct in Malta (Ramsay, St. Paul , p. 343). An inscription in Malta calls Prudens "Primate of the Maltese" (πρωτος Μελιταιων). Here it is plainly a title and not the common use seen in 13:50 ; 25:2 ; 28:17 . Publius (Ποπλιω). This Greek name (πραενομεν) can be derived either from Ποπιλιυς or Πυβλιυς (cf.
πυβλιχυς for ποπυλιχυς from ποπυλυς). Entertained us (εξενισεν ημας). Paul and his companions (Luke and Aristarchus). Was Julius included? On ξενιζω see Ac 10:23 . Courteously (φιλοφρονως). This old adverb from φιλοφρων (φιλοσ, φρεν, friendly mind) occurs here alone in the N. T. In a kindly or friendly manner, all the more so because of the original suspicion of Paul as a criminal.
Lay (κατακεισθα). Common verb for the sick ( Mr 1:30 ; Joh 5:6 ). Sick (συνεχομενον). "Held together." Common verb again for the sick as in Lu 4:38 . Of fever (πυρετοις). Instrumental case, and plural "fevers," medical term for intermittent attacks of fever (Demosthenes, Lucian, medical writers). Dysentery (δυσεντεριω). Instrumental case also. Late form of the older δυσεντερια and only here in N.
T. Our very word dysentery . Another medical term of which Luke uses so many. Hippocrates often mentions these two diseases together. Laying his hands on him healed him (επιθεις τας χειρας αυτω ιασατο αυτον). Either like the laying on of hands in Jas 5:14 , the gift of healing ( 1Co 12:9 f. ), or the tender interest of Jesus when he took hold of the hand of Peter's mother-in-law ( Mr 1:31 ).
Ramsay argues that ιαομα is employed here of the miraculous healing by Paul while θεραπευω is used of the cures by Luke the physician (verse 9 ). This is a general distinction and it is probably observed here, but in Lu 6:18 (which see) both verbs are employed of the healings by Jesus. Came and were healed (προσηρχοντο κα εθεραπευοντο). Imperfect middle and imperfect passive.
A regular stream of patients came during these months. Luke had his share in the honours, "us" (ημας), and no doubt his share in the cures. With many honours (πολλαις τιμαις). Instrumental case. The word was often applied to payment for professional services as we today speak of an honorarium. They put on board (επεθεντο). Second aorist middle indicative of επιτιθημ, to put on.
The idea of "on board" is merely suggested by αναγομενοις (when we sailed) "the things for our needs" (τα προς τας χρειας).
Which had wintered (παρακεχειμακοτ). Perfect active participle of παραχειμαζω, to pass the winter. Old verb, in N. T. only 27:12 ; 28:11 ; 1Co 16:6 ; Tit 3:12 . The locative case agreeing with πλοιω. Navigation in the Mediterranean usually opened up in February (always by March), spring beginning on Feb. 9 (Page). Whose sign was the Twin Brothers (παρασημω Διοσκουροις).
The word παρασημω can be either a substantive (as Revised Version has it) or an adjective "marked by the sign," examples of both uses common in ancient Greek. Διοσκουροις is in apposition with παρασημω. The word means the twin sons (κουρος or κορος) of Zeus (Διος, genitive of Ζευς) and Leda, viz. , Castor and Pollux. The Attic used the dual, τω Διοσκορω. Castor and Pollux were the tutelary deities of sailors whose figures were painted one on each side of the prow of the ship.
This sign was the name of the ship. So they start in another grain ship of Alexandria bound for Rome.
Touching (καταχθεντες). First aorist passive participle of καταγω, to go down to land, just the opposite of ανηχθημεν in verse 11 from αναγω, to go up to sea. At Syracuse (εις Συρακουσας). The chief city of Sicily and eighty miles from Malta. Perhaps open weather and a southerly wind helped them across. Here it was that Alcibiades wrecked the power and glory of Athens. Why the ship spent three days we do not know.
We made a circuit (περιελθοντες). Second aorist active of περιερχομα, to go around, old verb, already in 19:13 . See also Heb 11:37 ; 1Ti 5:13 . But Westcott and Hort read περιελοντες after Aleph B (from περιαιρεω) as in 27:40 , though here it could only mean casting loose, for which no other authority exists. At any rate the ship had to tack to reach Rhegium and was not able to make a straight course (ενθυδρομεω, 16:11 ).
Rhegium (Ρηγιον) is from ρηγνυμ, to break off, the place where the land breaks off, the southern entrance to the straits of Messina. A south wind sprang up (επιγενομενου νοτου). Genitive absolute again, and for all the world like that fatal south wind in 27:13 , but with no bad results this time, though the weather was plainly treacherous at this early season.
On the second day (δευτεραιο). This is the classical use of the predicate adjective, "We second day men" as in Lu 24:22 ; Joh 11:39 ; Php 3:5 instead of the adverb (Robertson, Grammar , p. 657). To Puteoli (εις Ποτιολους). It was 182 miles from Rhegium and would require 26 hours (Page). It was eight miles northwest from Neapolis (Naples) and the chief port of Rome, the regular harbour for the Alexandrian ships from Rome.
Portions of the great mole are said to be still visible.
Where we found brethren (ου ευροντες αδελφους). Possibly from Alexandria, but, as Blass observes, it is no more strange to find "brethren" in Christ in Puteoli when Paul arrives than in Rome. There was a large Jewish quarter. Seven days (ημερας επτα). Accusative of extent of time. Paul and his party remained so long at the urgent request of the brethren. He was still a prisoner, but clearly Julius was only too glad to show another courtesy to Paul to whom they all owed their lives.
It was 130 miles by land from Puteoli to Rome over one of the great Roman roads. And so we came to Rome (κα ουτως εις την Ρομην ηλθαμεν). So at last. Luke is exultant as Page observes: Paulus Romae captivus: triumphus unicus . It is the climax of the book of Acts ( 19:21 ; 23:11 ), but not the close of Paul's career. Page rightly remarks that a new paragraph should begin with verse 15 , for brethren came from Rome and this part of the journey is touched with the flavour of that incident.
The great event is that Paul reached Rome, but not as he had once hoped ( Ro 15:22-29 ).
When they heard of us (ακουσαντες τα περ ημων). How "they heard the things concerning us" we do not know. Good news had its way of travel even before the days of telegraph, telephone, daily papers. Possibly Julius had to send on special couriers with news of his arrival after the shipwreck. Possibly some of the brethren in Puteoli at once (beginning of the week) sent on news to the brethren in Rome.
The church in Rome had long ago received Paul's letter from Corinth at the hands of Phoebe. To meet us (εις απαντησιν ημιν). Idiomatic phrase, "for meeting with us" (associative instrumental case). Koine word απαντησις from verb απανταω, to meet, in N. T. only here; Mt 25:6 ; 1Ti 4:17 . Use after εις rather than infinitive like a translation Hebraism (Robertson, Grammar , p.
91). As far as the Market of Appius (αχρ Αππιου Φορου). The Forum of Appius, 90 miles from Puteoli, 40 from Rome, on the great Appian Way. The Censor Appius Claudius had constructed this part of the road, B. C. 312. Paul probably struck the Appian Way at Capua. Portions of this great stone highway are still in use. If one wishes to tread where Paul trod, he can do it here.
Appii Forum had a bad reputation, the haunt of thieves, thugs, and swindlers. What would this motley crowd think of Paul chained to a soldier? Three Taverns (Τριων Ταβερνων). Genitive case after αχρ like Αππιου Φορου. About 30 miles from Rome. Tres Tabernae . Whom (ους). Two groups of the disciples came (one Gentile, one Jewish, Rackham thinks), one to Appii Forum, the other to Three Taverns.
It was a joyous time and Julius would not interfere. Took courage (ελαβε θαρσος). The old substantive θαρσος is here alone in the N. T. Jesus himself had exhorted Paul to be of good courage (θαρσε Ac 23:11 ) as he had done the disciples ( Joh 16:33 ). Paul had passed through enough to cause depression, whether he was depressed or not, but he deeply appreciated this kindly sympathy.
Paul was suffered to abide by himself (επετραπη τω Παυλω μενειν καθ' εαυτον). Second aorist passive of επιτρεπο, to permit or allow. Literally, "It was permitted to Paul to abide by himself." Some late documents (Textus Receptus) here add: "The centurion delivered the prisoners to the captain of the guard" (or the στρατοπεδαρχ). This officer used to be considered Burrus who was Prefect of the Praetorian Guard A.
D. 51-62. But it is by no means certain that Julius turned the prisoners over to this officer. It seems more likely that Julius would report to the captain of the Peregrini. If so, we may be sure that Julius would give a good report of Paul to this officer who would be kindly disposed and would allow Paul comparative freedom (living by himself, in his lodging, verse 23 , his own hired house verse 30 , though still chained to a soldier).
With the soldier that guarded him (συν τω φυλασσοντ αυτον στρατιωτη). Probably a new soldier every day or night, but always with this soldier chained to his right hand day and night. Now that Paul is in Rome what can he do for Christ while he awaits the outcome of his own appeal to Nero?
Those that were the chief of the Jews (τους οντας των Ιουδαιων πρωτους). This use of πρωτος for the leading men of a city or among the Jews we have already had in 13:50 ; 25:2 ; Lu 19:47 . Literally, "Those that were first among the Jews." The position of the participle οντας between the article and the adjective πρωτους is regular (Robertson, Grammar , p. 777).
When they were come together (συνελθοντων αυτων). Genitive absolute again. Paul could not go to the synagogue, as his custom was, being a bound prisoner. So he invited the Jewish leaders to come to his lodging and hear his explanation of his presence in Rome as a prisoner with an appeal to Caesar. He is anxious that they may understand that this appeal was forced upon him by Festus following Felix and lot because he has come to make an attack on the Jewish people.
He was sure that false reports had come to Rome. These non-Christian Jews accepted Paul's invitation. Nothing against (ουδεν εναντιον). Adjective here as in 26:9 , not preposition as in 7:10 ; 8:32 . From εν and αντιος (αντ), face to face. Concessive participle ποιησας as in verse 4 (διασωθεντα) which see. Yet was I delivered prisoner from Jerusalem into the hands of the Romans (δεσμιος εξ Ιεροσολυμων παρεδοθην εις τας χειρας των Ρομαιων).
This condensed statement does not explain how he "was delivered," for in fact the Jews were trying to kill him when Lysias rescued him from the mob ( 22:27-36 ). The Jews were responsible for his being in the hands of the Romans, though they had hoped to kill him first.
When they had examined me (ανακριναντες με). First aorist active participle of ανακρινω, the same verb used already in 24:8 ; 25:6 , 26 of the judicial examinations by Felix and Festus. Desired (εβουλοντο). Imperfect middle of attempted action or picture of their real attitude. This is a correct statement as the words of both Felix and Festus show. Because there was (δια το--υπαρχειν).
Accusative case with δια (causal use) with the articular infinitive, "Because of the being no cause of death in me" (εν εμο, in my case, αιτια, usual word for crime or charge of crime).
When the Jews spake against it (αντιλεγοντων των Ιουδαιων). Genitive absolute again, αντιλεγοντων (αντιλεγω) common verb for speaking against as in 13:45 . Clementer dicit (Bengel). "The word is a mild one to describe the bitter enmity of the Jews" (Knowling). I was constrained (ηναγκασθην). "I was compelled," first aorist passive indicative of αναγκαζω, the very word used of Paul's efforts to get the Christians to blaspheme ( 26:11 ) which see.
Paul was compelled to appeal to Caesar (see 25:11 , 12 for this phrase), unless Paul was willing to be the victim of Jewish hate when he had done no wrong. Not that I had aught to accuse my nation of (ουχ ως του εθνους μου εχων τ κατηγορειν). This use of ως with a participle (εχων) is common in Greek for the alleged reason. The genitive case with the infinitive κατηγορειν is regular.
Paul says εθνος instead of λαος as in 24:17 ; 26:4 .
Did I intreat (παρεκαλεσα). Did I invite you. Because of the hope of Israel (εινεκεν της ελπιδος του Ισραελ). Genitive with preposition εινεκεν. The hope of the Messiah is his point as in 26:6 . I am bound with this chain (την αλυσιν ταυτην περικειμα). This old verb means to lie around as in Lu 17:2 ; Heb 12:1 . But it is also used as the passive of περιτιθημ, to place around with the accusative of περιτιθημ retained.
It is a transitive passive. Paul does not lie around the chain, but the chain lies around him, a curious reversal of the imagery (Robertson, Grammar , p. 815).
Letters (γραμματα). Official documents from the Sanhedrin about the charges against Paul. Any harm of thee (τ περ σου πονηρον). Evil (πονηρον). The three aorists (εδεξαμεθα, απηγγειλεν, ελαλησεν) cover the past. These Jews do not mean to say that they had never heard of Paul. It is hardly likely that they had heard of his appeal to Caesar, "for how could the news have reached Rome before Paul?" (Page).
But we desire (αξιουμεν δε). Old verb αξιοω, to deem worthy, to think right or proper as in 15:38 which see. They think it only fair to hear Paul's side of his case. Concerning this sect (περ της αιρεσεως ταυτης). Paul had identified Christianity with Judaism (verse 20 ) in its Messianic hope. The language seems to imply that the number of Christians in Rome was comparatively small and mainly Gentile.
If the edict of Claudius for the expulsion of the Jews from Rome ( Ac 18:2 ) was due to disturbance over Christ (Χρηστυς), then even in Rome the Jews had special reason for hostility towards Christians. Everywhere spoken against (πανταχου αντιλεγετα). Cf. verse 19 . The line of cleavage between Jew and Christian was now sharply drawn everywhere.
Appointed (ταξαμενο). First aorist middle participle of τασσω. Formal arrangement as in Mt 28:16 when Jesus appointed the mountain for his meeting in Galilee. In great number (πλειονες). Comparative of πολυς, "more than a few." Expounded (εξετιθετο). Imperfect middle of εκτιθημ, to set forth, as in 11:4 ; 18:26 . He did it with detail and care and spent all day at it, "from morning till evening" (απο πρω εως εσπερας).
In N. T. only here, 4:3 and Lu 24:29 , though common word. Persuading them concerning Jesus (πειθων αυτους περ του Ιησου). Conative present active participle, trying to persuade. It was only about Jesus that he could make good his claim concerning the hope of Israel (verse 20 ). It was Paul's great opportunity. So he appealed both to Moses and to the prophets for proof as it was his custom to do.
Some believed (ο μεν επειθοντο). Imperfect passive indicative of πειθω. More exactly, "some began to be persuaded" (inchoative). Some disbelieved (ο δε ηπιστουν). Imperfect active of απιστεω, to disbelieve, continued to disbelieve. It is usually so.
When they agreed not (ασυμφωνο οντες). Old adjective, only here in N. T. , double compound (α privative, συμ, φωνη), without symphony, out of harmony, dissonant, discordant. It was a triumph to gain adherents at all in such an audience. They departed (απελυοντο). Imperfect middle (direct) indicative, "They loosed themselves from Paul." Graphic close. After that Paul had spoken one word (ειποντος του Παυλου ρημα εν).
Genitive absolute. One last word (like a preacher) after the all day exposition. Well (καλως). Cf. Mt 14:7 ; Mr 7:6 , 9 (irony). Here strong indignation in the very position of the word (Page). To your fathers (προς τους πατερας υμων). So Aleph A B instead of ημων (our) like Stephen in 7:52 whose words Paul had heard. By mentioning the Holy Spirit Paul shows (Knowling) that they are resisting God ( 7:52 ).
Say (ειπον). Second aorist active imperative instead of the old form ειπε. The quotation is from Isa 6:9 , 10 . This very passage is quoted by Jesus ( Mt 13:14 , 15 ; Mr 4:12 ; Lu 8:10 ) in explanation of his use of parables and in Joh 12:40 the very point made by Paul here, "the disbelief of the Jews in Jesus" (Page). See on Matthew for discussion of the language used.
Here the first time ("go to this people and say") does not occur in Matthew. It is a solemn dirge of the doom of the Jews for their rejection of the Messiah foreseen so long ago by Isaiah.
This salvation (τουτο το σωτηριον). Adjective from σωτηρ (Saviour), saving, bringing salvation. Common in the old Greek. The neuter as here often in LXX (as Ps 67:2 ) as substantive like σωτηρια (cf. Lu 3:6 ). They will also hear (αυτο κα ακουσοντα). Αυτο as opposed to the rejection by the Jews, "vivid and antithetical" (Page).
Two whole years (διετιαν ολην). Only here in N. T. and 24:27 which see. During these busy years in Rome Paul wrote Philippians, Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians, Epistles that would immortalize any man, unless, forsooth, one or more of them was written from Ephesus or Caesarea, which has not yet been proven. In his own hired dwelling (εν ιδιω μισθωματ). Old word, here only in N.
T. , that which is hired for a price (from μισθοω and that from μισθος, hire). Received (απεδεχετο). Imperfect middle of αποδεχομα, received from time to time as they came, all that came (εισπορευομενους) from time to time. Preaching (κερυσσων), teaching (διδασκων), the two things that concerned Paul most, doing both as if his right hand was not in chains, to the amazement of those in Rome and in Philippi ( Php 1:12-14 ).
None forbidding him (ακωλυτως). Old adverb from α privative and the verbal adjective κωλυτος (from κωλυω, to hinder), here only in the N. T. Page comments on "the rhythmic cadence of the concluding words." Page rejects the notion that the book is an unfinished work. It closes with the style of a concluded work. I agree with Harnack that Luke wrote the Acts during this period of two years in Rome and carried events no further because they had gone no further.
Paul was still a prisoner in Rome when Luke completed the book. But he had carried Paul to "Rome, the capital of the world, Urbi et Orbi " (Page). The gospel of Christ has reached Rome. For the fate of Paul we must turn elsewhere. But Luke had the presence of Paul while he carried the Acts to its triumphant conclusion. Ramsay can give a good deal in proof of his claim that Luke is the greatest of all historians.
Beyond a doubt his rank is high and the world can never repay its debt to this cultured physician who wrote the Gospel and the Acts. IMPORTANCE OF PAUL'S WORK It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the life and work of Paul as the great interpreter of Christ. He has been misunderstood in modern times as he was during his career. Some accuse him of perverting the pure gospel of Christ about the Kingdom of God into a theological and ecclesiastical system.
He has been accused of rabbinizing the gospel by carrying over his Pharisaism, while others denounce him for Hellenizing the gospel with Greek philosophy and the Greek mystery-religions. But out of all the welter of attacks Paul's Epistles stand as the marvellous expression of his own conception of Christ and the application of the gospel to the life of the Christians in the Graeco-Roman world in which they lived by eternal principles that apply to us today.
In order to understand Paul's Epistles one must know the Acts of the Apostles in which Luke has drawn with graphic power the sudden change of the foremost opponent of Christ into the chief expounder and proclaimer of the gospel of the Risen Christ. The Acts and the Epistles supplement each other in a marvellous way, though chiefly in an incidental fashion. It is by no means certain that Luke had access to any of Paul's Epistles before he wrote the Acts, though that was quite possible for the early Epistles.
It does not greatly matter for Luke had access to Paul himself both in Caesarea and in Rome. The best life of Paul one can get comes by combining the Acts with the Epistles if he knows how to do it. Paul is Luke's hero, but he has not overdrawn the picture in the Acts as is made clear by the Epistles themselves which reveal his own grasp and growth. The literature on Paul is vast and constantly growing.
He possesses a fascination for students of the New Testament and of Christianity. It is impossible here to allude even to the most important in so vast a field. Conybeare and Howson's Life and Epistles of St. Paul still has value. Sir W. M. Ramsay has a small library on Paul and his Epistles. Stalker's masterful little book on Paul still grips men as does the work of Sabatier.
Deissmann's St. Paul continues to throw light on the great Apostle to the Gentiles. Those who wish my own view at greater length will find them in my various books on Paul ( Epochs in the Life of Paul , Paul the Interpreter of Christ , etc.) THE REASON FOR HIS EPISTLES In a real sense Paul's Epistles are tracts for the times, not for the age in general, but to meet real emergencies.
He wrote to a particular church or group of churches or persons to meet immediate needs brought to his attention by messengers or letters. Dr. Deissmann contends strongly for the idea of calling Paul's Epistles "letters" rather than "Epistles." He gives a studied literary character to "epistles" as more or less artificial and written for the public eye rather than for definite effect.
Four of Paul's Epistles are personal (those to Philemon, Titus, and Timothy) beyond a doubt, but in these which can properly be termed personal letters there are the principles of the gospel applied to personal, social, and ecclesiastical problems in such a pungent fashion that they possess permanent value. In the earliest group of Paul's Epistles, he reminds the Thessalonians of the official character of the Epistle which was meant for the church as a whole ( 1Th 5:27 ).
He says also: "But if any one does not obey our word by the epistle, mark this one, not to associate with him, that he may be put to shame" ( 2Th 3:14 ). He calls attention to his signature as proof of the genuineness of every epistle ( 2Th 3:17 ). He gave directions for the public reading of his epistles ( Col 4:16 ). He regarded them as the expression of God's will through the life of the churches and he put his whole heart into them.
Two great controversies stirred Paul's life. That with the Judaizers called forth the great doctrinal group (I Corinthians, II Corinthians, Galatians, Romans). That with the Gnostics occasioned the Epistles to the Colossians and the Ephesians (Laodiceans) and this controversy ran on into the Pastoral Epistles. Each Epistle had its particular occasion which will be pointed out in due season.
But even in the short ones like Philippians, Colossians and Ephesians Paul deals with the sublimest of all themes, the Person of Christ, with a masterfulness never equalled elsewhere. Even in I Corinthians, which deals so largely with church problems in Corinth, two great chapters rise to the heights of real eloquence (Chapter 1Co 13 on Love and Chapter 1Co 15 on the Resurrection).
Romans, the greatest of his Epistles, has the fullest discussion of Paul's gospel of grace and Chapter 1Co 8 has a sweep of imagination and a grasp of faith unsurpassed. Hence, while denying to Paul the artificial rules of the rhetoricians attributed to him by Blass, I cannot agree that Paul's church Epistles are mere incidental letters. It is not a question whether Paul was writing for posterity or for the present emergency.
He wrote for the present emergency in the most effective possible way. He brought the whole gospel message to bear upon the varied and pressing problems of the early Christians in the power of the Holy Spirit with the eloquence of a mind all ablaze with the truth and with a heart that yearned for their souls for Christ. They are not literary epistles, but they are more than personal letters.
They are thunderbolts of passion and power that struck centre and that strike fire now for all who will take the trouble to come to them for the mind of Christ that is here. DATES OF HIS EPISTLES Unfortunately there is not complete agreement among scholars as to the dates of some of Paul's Epistles. Baur denied the Pauline authorship of all the Epistles save I and II Corinthians, Galatians, Romans.
Today some deny that Paul wrote the Pastoral Epistles, though admitting the others. Some admit Pauline fragments even in the Pastoral Epistles, but more about this when these Epistles are reached. There is more doubt about the date of Galatians than any of the others. Lightfoot put it just before Romans, while Ramsay now makes it the earliest of all. The Epistle itself has no notes of place or time.
The Epistles to the Thessalonians were written from Corinth after Timothy had been sent from Athens by Paul to Thessalonica ( 1Th 3:1 f. ) and had just returned to Paul ( 1Th 3:6 ) which we know was in Corinth ( Ac 18:5 ) shortly before Gallio came as Proconsul of Achaia ( Ac 18:12 ). We can now feel certain from the new "acclamation" of Claudius in the inscription at Delphi recently explained by Deissmann in his St.
Paul that the Thessalonian Epistles were written 50 to 51 A. D. We know also that he wrote I Corinthians while in Ephesus ( 1Co 16:8 ) and before pentecost, though the precise year is not given. But he spent three years at Ephesus in round numbers ( Ac 19:8 , 10 ; 20:31 ) and he wrote just before he left, probably spring of A. D. 54 or 55. He wrote II Corinthians from Macedonia shortly after leaving Ephesus ( 2Co 2:12 ) ] apparently the same year.
Romans was written from Corinth and sent by Phoebe of Cenchreae ( Ro 16:1 f. ) unless Ro 16 be considered a separate Epistle to Ephesus as some hold, a view that does not commend itself to me. Deissmann ( New Testament in the Light of Modern Research , p. 33) accepts a modern theory that Ephesus was the place of the writing of the first prison Epistles (Philippians, Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians) as well as I Corinthians and Galatians and dates them all between A.
D. 52 and 55. But we shall find that these prison Epistles most naturally fall to Rome between A. D. 61 and 63. If the Pastoral Epistles are genuine, as I hold, they come between A. D. 65 and 68. Bartlet argues for a date before A. D. 64, accepting the view that Paul was put to death then. But it is still far more probable that Paul met his death in Rome in A.
D. 68 shortly before Nero's death which was June 8, A. D. 68. It will thus be seen that the dates of several of the Epistles are fairly clear, while some remain quite uncertain. In a broad outlook they must all come between A. D. 50 and 68. FOUR GROUPS OF PAULINE EPISTLES I. First Thessalonians. | Second Thessalonians. | A. D. 50 to 51. Chief topic Eschatology.
To correct misconceptions in Thessalonica. II. First Corinthians. | Second Corinthians | Galatians | A. D. 54 to 57. Romans. | Chief topic Justification by Faith. Defence against the Judaizers. III. Philippians. | Philemon. | Colossians. | A. D. 61 to 63. Ephesians (Laodiceans). Chief topic Christology. Defence against the Gnostic perversions of the Person of Christ.
IV. First Timothy. | Titus. | A. D. 65 to 68. Second Timothy. | Ecclesiastical Problems to the fore. DEVELOPMENT IN PAUL'S THEOLOGY The study of Paul's Epistles in the order of their writing is the best possible way of seeing his own growth as a theologian and interpreter of Christ. Sabatier long ago laid emphasis on this point in his book The Apostle Paul as did Matheson in The Spiritual Development of Paul .
It is a tragedy to have to read Paul's Epistles as printed in the usual Greek text of Westcott and Hort and the English translations, beginning with Romans and ending with Philemon. In the manuscripts that give Paul's Epistles Romans comes first as the largest and most important, but Titus and Philemon come after II Timothy (the last just before his death). We know something of Paul's early preaching how he laid emphasis on the Messiahship of Jesus proven by his resurrection, Paul himself having seen the Risen Christ ( Ac 9:22 ).
This conviction and experience lay at the foundation of all his work and he never faltered concerning it ( Ac 17:3 ). In the earliest sermon of which we have a full report Paul proclaims justification by faith in Christ with forgiveness of sins ( Ac 13:38 f. ), blessings not obtained by the law of Moses. In the unfolding life of Paul he grappled with great problems of Jewish rabbinism and Greek philosophy and mystery-religions and Paul himself grew in stature as he courageously and victoriously faced Judaizer and Gnostic.
There are scholars who claim that Paul surrendered to the appeal of Gnostic sacramentarianism and so went back on his great doctrine of justification by faith, not by works. It will be shown at the proper time that this view misinterprets Paul's attitude. The events given by Luke in the Acts fit in with the self-revelation of Paul in his own Epistles as we read them.
Each one of the four groups of Epistles has a slightly different style and vocabulary as is natural when one comes to think of it. The same thing is true of the plays of Shakespeare and the poems of Milton. Style is the man, Buffon says. Yes, but style is also a function of the subject. Particularly is this true of vocabulary which has to vary with the different topics treated.
But style in the same man varies with different ages. Ripened old age mellows the exuberance of youth and the passionate vehemence of manhood. We shall see Paul himself in his Epistles, letting himself go in various ways and in different moods. But in all the changing phases of his life and work there is the same masterful man who glories in being the slave of Jesus Christ and the Apostle to the Gentiles.
The passion of Paul is Christ and one can feel the throb of the heart of the chief of sinners who became the chief of saints in all his Epistles. There is the Pauline glow and glory in them all. SOME BOOKS ON THE PAULINE EPISTLES Bate, As a Whole Guide to the Epistles of St. Paul (1927). Bonnet-Schroeder, Epitres de Paul (4 ed. 1912). Champlain, The Epistles of Paul (1906).
Clemen, Einheitlichkeit d . paul. Briefe (1894). Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul . Drummond, The Epistles of Paul the Apostle (1899). Hayes, Paul and His Epistles (1915). Heinrici, Die Forschungen uber die paul. Briefe (1886). Lake, The Earlier Epistles of St. Paul (1915). Lewin, Life and Epistles of St. Paul . (1875). Neil, The Pauline Epistles (1906).
Scott, The Pauline Epistles (1909). Shaw, The Pauline Epistles (1903). Vischer, Die Paulusbriefe (1910). Voelter, Die Composition der paul. Haupt Briefe (1890). Voelter, Paulus und seine Briefe (1905). Way, The Letters of Paul to Seven Churches and Three Friends (1906) Weinel, Die Echtheit der paul. Hauptbriefe (1920). Weiss, B. , Present Status of the Inquiry Concerning the Genuineness of the Pauline Epistles (1901).
Weiss, B. , Die Paulinische Briefe (1902). Wood, Life, Letters, and Religion of St. Paul (1925). BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION INTEGRITY OF THE EPISTLE The genuineness of the Epistle is so generally admitted by scholars that it is unnecessary to prove it here, for Loman, Steck, and the Dutch scholars (Van Manen, etc.) who deny it as Pauline are no longer taken seriously.
He wrote it from Corinth because he sent it to Rome by Phoebe of Cenchreae ( Ro 16:2 ) if chapter 16 is acknowledged to be a part of the Epistle. Chapter 16 is held by some to be really a short epistle to Ephesus because of the long list of names in it, because of Paul's long stay in Ephesus, because he had not yet been to Rome, and because, in particular, Aquila and Priscilla are named ( Ro 16:3-5 ) who had been with Paul in Ephesus.
But they had come from Rome before going to Corinth and there is no reason for thinking that they did not return to Rome. It was quite possible for Paul to have many friends in Rome whom he had met elsewhere. People naturally drifted to Rome from all over the empire. The old MSS. (Aleph A B C D) give chapter 16 as an integral part of the Epistle. Marcion rejected it and chapter 15 also for reasons of his own.
Renan's theory that Romans was a circular letter like Ephesians sent in different forms to different churches (Rome, Ephesus, Thessalonica, etc.) has appealed to some scholars as explaining the several doxologies in the Epistle, but they cause no real difficulty since Paul interjected them in his other epistles according to his moods ( 2Co 1:20 , for instance).
That theory raises more problems than it solves as, for example, Paul's remarks about going to Rome ( Ro 1:9-16 ) which apply to Rome. Lightfoot suggests the possibility that Paul added Ro 16:25-27 some years after the original date so as to turn it into a circular letter. But the MSS. do not support that theory and that leaves Ro 15:22-33 in the Epistle quite unsuitable to a circular letter.
Modern knowledge leaves the Epistle intact with occasional variations in the MSS. on particular points as is true of all the N. T. The place is settled if we accept Ro 16:1 . The time of the year is in the spring if we combine statements in the Acts and the Epistle. He says: "I am now going to Jerusalem ministering to the saints" ( Ro 15:25 ). In Ac 20:3 we read that Paul spent three months in Corinth.
In II Corinthians we have a full account of the collection for the poor saints in Jerusalem. The account of the journey from Corinth to Jerusalem is given in Ac 20:3-21:17 . It was in the spring between passover at Philippi ( Ac 20:6 ) and pentecost in Jerusalem ( 20:16 ; 21:17 ). The precise year is not quite so certain, but we may suggest A. D. 57 or 58 with reasonable confidence.
Paul tells this himself. He had long cherished a desire to come to Rome ( Ac 19:21 ) and had often made his plans to do so ( Ro 1:13 ) which were interrupted ( Ro 15:22 ), but now he definitely plans to go from Jerusalem, after taking the contribution there ( Ro 15:26 ), to Rome and then on to Spain ( Ro 15:24 , 28 ). Meanwhile he sends this Epistle that the Romans may know what Paul's gospel really is ( Ro 1:15 ; 2:16 ).
He is full of the issues raised by the Judaizing controversy as set forth in the Epistles to Corinth and to Galatia. So in a calmer mood and more at length he presents his conception of the Righteousness demanded by God ( Ro 1:17 ) of both Gentile ( Ro 1:18-32 ) and Jew ( Ro 2:1-3:20 ) and only to be obtained by faith in Christ who by his atoning death (justification) has made it possible ( Ro 3:21-5:21 ).
This new life of faith in Christ should lead to holiness of life (sanctification, chapters Ro 6-8 ). This is Paul's gospel and the remaining chapters deal with corollaries growing out of the doctrine of grace as applied to practical matters. It is a cause for gratitude that Paul did write out so full a statement of his message. He had a message for the whole world and was anxious to win the Roman Empire to Christ.
It was important that he go to Rome for it was the centre of the world's life. Nowhere does Paul's Christian statesmanship show to better advantage than in this greatest of his Epistles. It is not a book of formal theology though Paul is the greatest of theologians. Here Paul is seen in the plenitude of his powers with all the wealth of his knowledge of Christ and his rich experience in mission work.
The church in Rome is plainly composed of both Jews and Greeks, though who started the work there we have no way of knowing. Paul's ambition was to preach where no one else had been ( Ro 15:20 ), but he has no hesitation in going on to Rome. No one of Paul's Epistles has more helpful modern commentaries on it than this one, such as those by Barth (1919), Beet (9th ed.
, 1901), Cook (1930), Denney (1901), Feine (1903), Garvie (1901), Gifford (1881), Godet (Tr. , 1883), Gore (Expos.) , Grey (1910), Griffith-Thomas (1913), Hodge (1856), Hort (Intr. , 1895), Jowett (3rd ed. , 1894), Julicher (2 Aufl. , 1907), Kuhl (1913), Lagrange (1916), Lard (1875), Liddon (Anal. , 1893), Lietzmann (2 Aufl. , 1919), Lightfoot (chapters 1-7, 1895), Luetgert (1913), Monk (1893), Plummer, Richter (1908), Sanday and Headlam (1895), Shedd (1893), Stifler (1897), Vaughan (1890), Weiss, B.
(Meyer Komm. , g Aufl. , 1899), Westcott, F. B. (1913), Zahn (1910).